TREATISE V
Sin in General
In this treatise we shall consider : 1. the nature of sin ; 2. the various kinds of sin ; 3. the species of sins ; 4. the numerical distinction of sins; 5. the causes of sin ; 6. the effects of sin ; 7. internal sins ; 8. the capital sins.
CHAPTER I. THE NATURE OF SIN
Various words are used in Sacred Scripture to describe sin, v.g., disobedience, contempt of God, iniquity, impiety, prevarication, foolishness, an offence against God. It is this last phrase which best describes the malice of sin.
158. Real definition. Sin is a prevarication of the divine law (St. Ambrose), or : sin is any word, deed or desire contrary to God’s eternal law (St. Augustine).
Since every sin is a human and a moral act, it requires the advertence of the intellect and the consent of the will. If either of these is lacking, the act cannot be a formal sin. Every sin is a genuine offence against God, and there is no such thing as a purely philosophical sin which offends against right reason but does not give rise to a theological fault.
CHAPTER II. KINDS OF SIN
159. Original sin is that privation of original justice inherited at birth ; personal sin is an offence against God committed by the deliberate will of the individual.
Personal sin is either actual or habitual sin, according as it is a transitory act (or omission) or a permanent habit. Actual sins are of various kinds : —
1. Sins of commission are acts contrary to a negative precept, such as theft ; sins of omission are transgressions of a positive precept, such as missing Mass.
2. Actual sins arc either sins of thought, word, or deed, according as they are committed by the mind alone or by word of mouth or by some external action.
3. Sins of ignorance proceed from lack of knowledge ; sins of weakness are the result of passion which makes the act less voluntary ; sins of malice proceed from an evil will.
4. There are sins against the Holy Ghost, sins which cry to Heaven for vengeance, and the capital sins. These sins are essentially different from each other. A sin against the Holy Ghost is committed by the deliberate contempt of some grace withdrawing man from sin. Such sins are usually named : presumption, despair, resisting the known truth of Christianity, envy of the grace possessed by one’s neighbour, obstinacy, impenitence. — Sins crying to Heaven for vengeance are such sins whose malice cries out to Heaven, so to speak, because of the grievous injury done to the social order ; these are four in number : murder, sodomy, oppression of orphans and widows, defrauding workers of their just wage. — The capital sins are dtose which are, so to speak, the roots from which other sins spring ; there are seven : pride, envy, covetousness, anger, lust, gluttony, sloth.
5. Formal sin is a voluntary and free transgression of the law ; material sin is an involuntary transgression.
6. Mortal sin is that sin which destroys sanctifying grace and causes the death of the soul ; venial sin is an offence against God which merely lessens the fervour of charity. This division is of supreme importance and consequently requires a more detailed explanation.
160. The nature of mortal sin implies : 1. an aversion from God ; 2. an adherence to creatures which is seriously inordinate ; 3. grave injury to the rational nature of man and to the social order.
a) three conditions must be verified for mortal sin :
1. There must be grave matter which is determined by the object and circumstances of the act (or omission) and which is made known to us as such in the first place through the teaching authority of the Church and her theologians. There are some sins which do not admit of slight matter and these are mortal sins “ ex toto genere suo ” (v.g., lust, blasphemy, etc.) ; in other sins the matter is not always grave (v.g., in theft, or fasting), and thus the sin may be venial. These are mortal sins “ ex genere suo”.
2. Full advertence to the moral nature of the act is required. Therefore where such advertence is defective, sins are always venial (or there may be no sin at all) because of the act’s imperfection.
3. Full consent is also necessary, and this is always presumed to be present where there is full advertence and no external violence. Therefore fear and passion certainly diminish consent but do not destroy it, and they do not prevent mortal sin unless full advertence is lacking.
In practice there is often reasonable doubt whether all these three conditions were verified or not in a particular case. In such instances, if the confessor fails to reach a conclusion after prudent enquiry he must leave the matter to God’s judgement but warn the penitent against future dangers of sinning. If the penitent is in doubt about one or other of the requisite conditions he should candidly reveal his doubts to the confessor and submit to his judgement.
In the following instances advertence and consent are imperfect :
1 . when an act is committed while half asleep or half drunk ;
2. when the penitent is not in complete possession of himself, v.g., because of a sudden and most vehement surge of passion ;
3. when a person is suffering from pathological states or feelings, e.g., hysteria, mania, phobia ;
4. when the penitent can truthfully and certainly assert that he would never have acted in that way if he had thought about it seriously before-hand ;
5. when the penitent in the face of temptation is immediately agitated and sorry because of the devout state of his conscience.
161. The essence of venial sin consists in a certain disorder but does not imply complete aversion from man’s final end ; it is therefore an illness of the soul, so to speak, and not its death.
Venial sins are distinguished as follows :
1. There are sins which of their nature are venial, since their moral object implies a slight disorder, such as a jocose he ; 2. other sins are venial because of parvity of matter, namely sins which in themselves are grave but because of slight matter become slight disorders, such as the theft of a shilling ; 3. sins may be venial through imperfection in the act when there is wanting full advertence or full consent, v.g., semi-deliberate impure thoughts.
Although the frequent commission of venial sins of itself never changes venial into mortal sin, sometimes venial sin becomes grave sin, v.g., through an erroneous conscience, through the malicious intent of the sinner, through the accumulation of matter — as in theft.
In order to distinguish between venial and mortal sins one must consult the authority a ) of Sacred Scripture, h ) of the Church, c ) of the Doctors.
CHAPTER III. SPECIES OF SINS
162. Since the Council of Trent, Sess. 14, c. 7, teaches that both the species and the number of mortal sins must be revealed in confession it is necessary that the confessor make himself acquainted with the rules for distinguishing the species and number of sins.
St. Thomas bases the specific distinction of sin from sin on the formal distinction between their moral object; Scotus derives the distinction from their opposition to different virtues, whereas Vasquez prefers their opposition to different precepts.
These three criteria differ from each other only in appearance and not in fact, and are usually expressed in the following verse :
Obiectum, virtus, diversa praecepta modusque Dant speciem peccatis diversumque reatum.
In practice sins are said to be specifically distinct from each other :
1. if they are opposed to different virtues — v.g., a sin against the virtue of justice is a different sin from one against the virtue of temperance ;
2. if they are opposed to the same virtue but in different ways, e.g., by excess and by defect, etc. Thus theft is specifically distinct from calumny, even though both sins are opposed to the same virtue of justice ;
3. if they are opposed to laws which are formally distinct. Laws are considered to be formally distinct if they were made for different internal reasons. Thus, for example, theft which is forbidden both by Natural, divine and civil law is nevertheless only one sin since these three laws forbid theft for the same internal reason ; on the other hand a priest who sins against chastity commits two specifically distinct sins since he transgresses two laws that are formally distinct — viz., laws with two formally distinct motives, the motive of temperance and the motive of religion.
CHAPTER IV. NUMERICAL DISTINCTION OF SINS
163. In this matter it is essential to consider the prudent estimation of men, since it is morally impossible on many occasions to discover the exact number of sins committed. The following general rules may be used :
1. Sins that are specifically distinct are also distinct numerically.
Thus, for example, a man who commits adultery commits two sins which are not only specifically distinct but also numerically distinct.
2. There are as many sins as there are moral interruptions in the act of the will.
The continuity of human acts is broken by revocation or by deliberate cessation which is an implicit revocation of the act. If, however, one is compelled to cease from the act through the call of other necessary occupations, then a distinction has to be made between internal acts, external acts, and those which are partly internal and partly external. Purdy internal acts, such as impure thoughts (unaccompanied by desires), are interrupted by physical cessation. However, in practice it is often impossible to determine the exact number of such thoughts, and so it is sufficient to confess : I have had impure thoughts for such or such a period of time.
Acts that are partly internal and partly external (such as evil desires) do not seem to be interrupted by an involuntary cessation, at least when they are directed to obtaining one and the same object. Thus, for example, a man who desires to steal a hundred pounds and yet through fear of capture steals the money in small amounts over a period of time, would seem to commit only one sin.
In the same way external acts do not seem to be interrupted by any involuntary cessation, provided that the cessation does not last for long and the acts are not in themselves morally complete (cf. the following rule). Consequently a group of youths engaged in obscene conversation commit only one sin even if through the intervention of some superior they are forced to cease from their talk for half an hour, whereas a man who commits pollution and then repeats the act half an hour later commits two sins, because he has performed two acts which are in themselves morally complete and entire.
3. There are as many sins as there are morally complete objects, even though these objects are attained by one and the same act of the will and by the same external act.
Objects are considered to be morally complete if they are complete in themselves and have no moral connection with each other like means with an end. Even though this rule is not universally admitted, nevertheless it appears to be true since an object that is morally entire and complete is sought by an act of will that is complete and limited to that object. Thus a man who intends to kill ten men in one explosion commits ten murders ; a person who desires to seduce five young people through one immoral conversation commits five sins. On the other hand a man who intends to have sexual intercourse with a woman and cither immediately before or after the act is immodest in his speech or looks or touch commits one sin, since these acts arc parts of one entire object.
CHAPTER V. THE CAUSES OF SIN
164. Principle. Neither God nor the devil nor anything else other than the evil will of the sinner himself is the adequate efficient cause of sin.
It is of faith that God is not the cause of sin, this having been defined in the Council of Trent, Sess. 6, c. 6, de iustif.
That neither the devil nor any other cause can infallibly incite man to sin is evident from the fact that no one can destroy the internal freedom of man. Therefore man always has the power to resist temptations to sin. Although temptations do not produce sin infallibly, they are powerful incitements to sin. Temptations arise from three sources : evil concupiscence, the devil, and the world. To consent to temptation is to commit sin, as is abundantly evident ; therefore it is essential to resist temptation or at least not to consent to it.
The remedies to be used against temptations are vigilance, humility, confidence in God, frequent use of the Sacraments, etc.
CHAPTER VI. EFFECTS OF SIN
165. x. These are the effects of mortal sin :
a) loss of sanctifying grace ;
b) loss of the infused virtues (with the exception of faith and hope) and of the gifts of the Holy Ghost ;
c) loss of all merit ;
d) a foul disfigurement of the soul ;
e) remorse of conscience ;
f) right to eternal punishment.
166. 2. These are the effects of venial sin :
a) some loss of beauty of soul ;
b) difficulty hi practising the virtues ;
c) withdrawal of many graces ;
d) an inclination to mortal sin ;
e) right to temporal punishment.
A fuller explanation of these effects is to be found in the author’s Man. Theol. mor. 392 sqq.
CHAPTER VII. INTERNAL SIN
167. Definition. Internal sins are those which are completed within the heart of man without being revealed externally. They are three in number : deliberate pleasure, sinful joy, evil desire.
168. Deliberate pleasure is the sinful complacency taken in an evil object presented to man by his imagination but which is not accompanied by any desire for the object.
a) A deliberate pleasure. In Latin the adjective “morosa” is used, not because of the length of time (“ mora ”) required for this complacency but because the will freely lingers in this evil complacency even though it is only momentary.
b) It is complacency in an evil object presented by the imagination . . . and thus the object of the complacency is not an external object but a representation proceeding from the imagination.
c) A complacency unaccompanied by desire . . . because if desire is also present, then the complacency assumes an additional moral evil. There are four objects in which man may take pleasure : 1. the external act itself, such as an act of fornication ; 2. the external act as portrayed by the imagination, v.g., not an act of fornication that has taken place already or one which is about to take place but the representation of the act existing in the imagination ; 3. the subtle and skilful way in which the evil act is performed (e.g. picking pockets) ; 4. the knowledge that man possesses of evil acts, v.g., a moralist may take pleasure in being able to show the intrinsic evil of fornication. The first form of pleasure is the sin itself present in the external act. The second form of pleasure is the deliberate pleasure of which we are speaking and is of the same evil character as the act which forms its object, since no one would take pleasure in such imagination unless his will were inclined towards the evil act itself, although he may be unwilling to complete the act externally. The third form of pleasure is not of itself evil, although it is often dangerous.
The fourth form is lawful, in fact praiseworthy if done for a right intention. Principle. To take deliberate pleasure in an object of the imagination which is gravely sinful is itself a mortal sin whose species is determined by the object itself and its circumstances.
The reason is that an evil imagination and its evil object possess from the moral aspect the same essential wickedness, since the external act does not increase morality.
Thus a person who takes deliberate pleasure in adultery sins in a different way than if he were to take delight in incest. However, in practice, it is normally sufficient for the penitent to confess that he had so many thoughts against chastity without mentioning the other circumstances. For such thoughts ( which are not accompanied by an evil desire) do not present their object clearly with all its circumstances ; they usually pass quickly through the mind making it morally impossible — especially after a long time — to reveal in confession all their circumstances.
169. Sinful joy is a deliberate complacency in something evil done by oneself or by others.
It consists in some form of approval of a sin already committed and therefore has the same malice as the sin itself. Similar to this joy is pride in the commission of sin and sadness in the non-fulfilment of some evil act.
170. Evil desire is a deliberate complacence in some sin not yet committed, or, the longing to do something morally evil.
This desire is efficacious if it represents a firm and genuine resolve to commit sin, or inefficacious if it is a wish unaccompanied by a firm resolve.
1. An efficacious desire to commit an evil act is a sin of the same species and malice as the external act which forms its object. This is clear front the fact that the entire malice of a human act is based on the evil will of man, and the external act itself does not add any new morality. And thus Christ Himself said : “ He who shall look on a woman to lust after her has already committed adultery with her in his heart ” (Mt. v. 28).
2. An inefficacious or conditional desire to commit some evil is always detestable and therefore dangerous, since the imagination is incited by it and time is wasted. What is the value of such desires ? However, it is not in itself sinful, if the condition attached takes away the malice of the act— v.g., I might desire to eat meat if it were not Friday. It is sinful if it contains some disorder in spite of the condition attached. Thus, for example, it is a sin to say : I would commit fornication if there were no Hell.
Practical notes. Should the penitent confess in a general way : I have had bad thoughts, the confessor will first enquire : were they voluntary or involuntary ? If the penitent replies that they were voluntary, he will next ask : were there any evil desires accompanying the thoughts ? If the penitent replies in the negative, it only remains to discover the approximate number of these evil thoughts, without discussing the moral species of their objects— e.g., whether the thoughts concerned adultery, fornication, etc.— as is evident from what has been said in n. 168. But if the penitent replies that he had evil desires in addition to the thoughts, then he must make known the different moral species of their objects, v.g., whether he desired adultery, or fornication, etc. However, it sometimes happens that uninstructed penitents cannot distinguish deliberate pleasure from evil desire, in which case the confessor is not obliged to enquire about the objects of such acts.
CHAPTER VIII: THE CAPITAL SINS
171. Definition. A capital sin (or, preferably, vice) is one which is the source, so to speak, of other sins and vices. The Angelic Doctor prefers to use the word “ vice ” in place of “ sin ” in order to emphasise that here we are considering habits or evil inclinations which have arisen through repetition of acts. And thus, for instance, a man who is drunk on one occasion has not yet acquired the vice of intemperance.
Number. Following St. Gregory the Great it has become customary to distinguish seven capital vices or sins : 1. vainglory ; 2. avarice ; 3. lust ; 4. envy ; 5. gluttony ; 6. anger ; 7. sloth.
The malice of these capital sins is not always greater than that of other sins, and not every act proceeding from a capital vice is a mortal sin — e.g., acts of envy, of anger, of sloth are frequently venial sins. However, a man who knowingly and willingly fosters these capital vices or evil inclinations without resolutely resisting them is nearly always in a state of mortal sin.
St. Thomas does not include pride among the capital vices, preferring to call it the queen and source of all sins without exception. However, since pride and vainglory are closely allied we shall consider them together.
172. 1. Pride and Vainglory.
Pride is an inordinate desire for one’s own excellence (St. Thomas). Pride is said to be complete when a man extols himself to such an extent that he is unwilling to admit subjection to God and His laws through fear that such subjection would be harmful to his own excellence. Such pride is a mortal sin, because it is a contempt of God or of those who stand in His place. Pride is imperfect when a man thinks of himself too highly without rejecting his subjection to God and his superiors. Such pride is in itself venially sinful since it does not imply a serious disorder. But every form of pride is an extremely dangerous vice, a) because it insinuates its way into all good deeds so as to destroy their merit ; b) because nothing so quickly grows in us and so slowly dies ; c) because it is not easily recognised.
Sins to which pride leads are : presumption, ambition, vainglory, boasting, hypocrisy, strife, disobedience.
Remedies for pride are : a sincere knowledge of oneself, consideration of Christ’s humility, the practice of humility.
Vainglory is an inordinate desire to manifest one’s own excellence. Therefore while pride in its general form is an inordinate desire for one’s own excellence, vainglory is primarily a desire to manifest one’s personal excellence ; it is an inordinate desire to receive praise from men.
173. 2. Avarice.
Avarice is the inordinate love of having possessions or riches.
Avarice which offends against justice is a mortal sin which admits of slight matter; that which offends against the virtue of liberality only is in itself a venial sin.
Sins which ordinarily spring from avarice are : hardness of heart, unrest or disordered anxiety regarding the things of this world, the use of violence in acquiring possessions, lying and deceit.
Remedies : consideration of the vanity of this world’s goods, meditation on the example of Christ.
174. 3. Lust.
Lust is the inordinate desire for sexual pleasure.
It is a mortal sin which admits of no slight matter.
Sins which result from lust are : mental blindness, precipitancy, inconstancy, self-love and hatred of God, affection for the present life and fear of the future.
Remedies : humble and frequent prayer, frequent reception of the Sacraments, avoidance of idleness, practice of temperance, avoidance of the occasions of sin.
We shall return to the consideration of this vice in the treatise on the vices contrary to temperance.
175. 4. Envy.
Envy is sadness on account of the goods possessed by another which are regarded as harmful to oneself since they diminish one’s own excellence or renown.
Envy is a mortal sin which admits of slight matter and is directly opposed to charity.
Sins which normally result from envy are : hatred, murmuring, detraction, resentment at the neighbour’s prosperity and joy in his adversity.
Remedies : practice of brotherly love, practice of humility, consideration of the evils which normally result from envy.
176. 3. Gluttony.
Gluttony is an inordinate desire for food and drink.
It is of its nature a venial sin since it does not imply a serious moral disorder ; however, it often becomes grievously sinful by reason of its most evil effects.
Sins which ordinarily result from gluttony are : mental dullness, excessive talking and buffoonery, immoderate hilarity, uncleanness of every kind.
Remedies : consideration of the evil consequences of this vice, practice of temperance, avoidance of the occasions of sin, especially if they involve intoxicating drink.
Further consideration will be given to gluttony and especially to drunkenness in n. 501 sqq.
177. 6. Anger.
Anger is the inordinate desire for revenge.
Anger considered in itself as a disorderly passion is a venial sin, since it involves only a slight disorder, but in so far as it is an inordinate desire for revenge it is a mortal sin which allows of parvity of matter, since such a desire offends against charity and sometimes against justice. Anger considered in its effects is a grave or venial sin depending on whether those effects ought to have been foreseen and whether they are contrary to right reason in a serious or slight manner.
St. Thomas lists six effects of this vice : indignation, mental disturbance, noisy speech, blasphemy, abuse, quarrels.
Remedies against this vice : to foresee its causes, resistance to the movements of anger immediately and vigorously, consideration of Christ’s example.
178. 7. Sloth.
Sloth is defiled either as sorrow in the face of spiritual good inasmuch as it is God’s good (St. Thomas), or as sorrow regarding the means of salvation conferred on us and prescribed by God.
Sloth is a mortal sin which admits of slight matter, and is opposed to the love of God.
Sins which result from sloth : tepidity towards the divine precepts, wandering towards what is forbidden, faint-heartedness, despair of salvation.
Remedies: consideration of the evil results of this vice, meditation on man’s eternal reward.